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This diagram presents the major sources used to study the historical context of modern India. It classifies the different types of evidence—archival records, biographies and travel accounts, newspapers and journals, oral testimonies, and creative literature—into clear categories, along with their important subdivisions. These sources together help historians reconstruct political developments, social conditions, cultural changes, and public opinion from the seventeenth century onward.

It examines India’s planned development after independence, focusing on the goals of the Five Year Plans, agricultural reforms, industrial growth, and the adoption of import substitution as the core trade policy.

Examines the structure and performance of the Indian economy under British colonial rule, highlighting how colonial policies reshaped agriculture, industry, trade, infrastructure, demography, and employment. It describes the transformation of India into a supplier of raw materials and a market for British manufactured goods, resulting in low economic growth, agricultural stagnation, deindustrialisation of traditional handicrafts, limited modern industrial development, and a drain of wealth through foreign trade. The narrative outlines the agrarian dominance of the workforce, exploitative land revenue systems, poor technological progress, weak capital goods industries, trade monopolies favouring Britain, adverse demographic indicators such as low literacy and life expectancy, and infrastructure developed primarily to serve colonial interests. It concludes by emphasising the widespread poverty, unemployment, and structural weaknesses that shaped India’s post-independence development challenges.

Adi Shankaracharya (8th century CE) was a profound Indian philosopher and theologian who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta. Born in Kaladi, Kerala, he showed extraordinary intellect from an early age and became a sannyasi in childhood. Traveling across the Indian subcontinent, he engaged in debates with leading scholars, revived Vedic thought, and worked to unify diverse philosophical traditions under a non-dualistic framework. His central teaching held that the individual soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman) are fundamentally one, and that ignorance of this truth is the cause of human suffering. Shankaracharya established four major mathas (monastic centers) in Sringeri, Puri, Dwaraka, and Jyotirmath to preserve and propagate Vedic knowledge. He wrote extensive commentaries on the Brahma Sutras, Upanishads, and Bhagavad Gita, making complex ideas accessible and authoritative. He also composed devotional hymns that are widely recited even today. His efforts helped counter declining Vedic traditions and provided a philosophical foundation that shaped later Hindu thought. Despite his short life, his influence remains immense, positioning him as one of India's greatest spiritual reformers, whose ideas continue to guide seekers of truth and non-duality.

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Razia Sultan (reigned 1236–1240 CE) was the first and only woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate and belonged to the Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty. She was the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish, who nominated her as his successor due to her administrative ability. After Iltutmish’s death, Razia ascended the throne, overcoming opposition from nobles who preferred a male ruler. During her reign, she attempted to centralize authority, reduce the power of the Turkish nobility (Chahalgani), and appointed capable officers based on merit. She adopted the title “Sultan”, not “Sultana,” indicating sovereign authority. Razia also led military campaigns and personally commanded her army. Her close association with Jamal-ud-din Yaqut, an Abyssinian noble, angered powerful Turkish nobles, leading to rebellions. She was eventually dethroned by Malik Altunia, with whom she later allied through marriage to regain the throne. Their final attempt failed, and Razia was killed in 1240 CE. Razia Sultan is remembered as a capable, assertive, and pioneering female ruler in medieval India.

This timeline illustrates the major phases in the arrival and expansion of various European powers in India between 1498 and 1763. Beginning with the Portuguese entry under Vasco da Gama, it traces the establishment of trading posts, commercial rivalries, and territorial ambitions of the Dutch, English, French, and other European companies. The sequence highlights key turning points that shaped early colonial influence in India, setting the foundation for political and economic transformations in the centuries that followed.

This timeline outlines the major events, causes, and developments that shaped the Revolt of 1857, the first large-scale uprising against British rule in India. It highlights how decades of political annexation, economic exploitation, social interference, and military grievances culminated in a widespread confrontation that began at Meerut and quickly spread across north and central India. The diagram traces the outbreak, leadership, key battles, and eventual suppression of the revolt, while showing how this turning point led to fundamental changes in British policies and the governance of India.

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This diagram presents the major stages in the expansion and consolidation of British power in India from 1757 to 1856. It traces how the British East India Company transformed from a trading corporation into a territorial power following the Battle of Plassey, and later secured political dominance after the Battle of Buxar. The chart highlights the mechanisms of expansion—wars, subsidiary alliances, the doctrine of lapse, and administrative interventions—through which the Company steadily brought Indian states under its control. It also outlines the political, military, and diplomatic strategies that enabled the British to eliminate rival European powers, suppress regional kingdoms, and establish an extensive colonial administration. Together, these developments set the foundation for direct British Crown rule after 1858.

This diagram outlines the conditions in India on the eve of the British conquest, focusing on the decline of the Mughal Empire. It highlights the political fragmentation, weakening central authority, rise of regional powers, and administrative disintegration that marked the eighteenth century. These developments created openings for European trading companies—especially the British—to intervene in local affairs and gradually expand their control. The chart provides a structured view of the major factors that contributed to the Mughal decline and paved the way for British dominance.

Mahatma Gandhi’s role in India (1915–1948) was central to the country’s freedom struggle. After returning from South Africa in 1915, he transformed Indian politics by introducing non-violent mass movements rooted in Satyagraha and Ahimsa. Through campaigns like Champaran, Kheda, Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, and the Quit India Movement, he mobilised millions across caste, class, and region. Gandhi reshaped Congress into a mass organisation, promoted swadeshi, upliftment of the poor, Hindu-Muslim unity, and removal of untouchability. His moral leadership became the guiding force of the national movement. Gandhi remained a crucial figure even after Independence—advocating peace during Partition—until his assassination in 1948.

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Emergency in India (1975–77) – Short Note The Emergency in India, proclaimed from June 25, 1975 to March 21, 1977, was a period when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi advised President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed to declare a national emergency under Article 352 on the grounds of “internal disturbances.” During these 21 months, the government gained extraordinary powers: fundamental rights were suspended, press censorship was imposed, and many opposition leaders, activists, and critics were arrested under preventive detention laws such as MISA. Elections were postponed, and the central government exercised strict control over political and civil institutions. The period is often remembered as one of the most controversial and authoritarian phases in independent India’s political history. The Emergency ended in 1977 when elections were held, leading to a defeat of the ruling government and the rise of the Janata Party. Background of the Emergency Political instability and rising opposition: In the early 1970s, India faced political unrest, with protests led by Jayaprakash Narayan (JP Movement), students, and labour groups demanding governmental reforms and accountability. Economic crisis: High inflation, shortages of essential goods, unemployment, and slow economic growth created widespread public dissatisfaction. Navnirman and Bihar Movements: Large-scale youth-led protests in Gujarat and Bihar added pressure on the central government. Allahabad High Court verdict (1975): On June 12, 1975, the court found Indira Gandhi guilty of electoral malpractices in her 1971 election campaign and invalidated her Lok Sabha membership. This triggered a major political crisis and demands for her resignation. Call for nationwide movement: Jayaprakash Narayan called for nationwide civil disobedience against the government, which strengthened fears of instability within the ruling leadership.

The American Revolution (1775–1783) ended British colonial rule and created an independent United States, but the new nation soon faced the challenge of designing a stable government. This led to the U.S. Constitution of 1787, which replaced the weak Articles of Confederation with a stronger federal system balancing powers between states and the central authority. However, deep divisions—especially over slavery—continued to grow, eventually erupting in the Civil War (1861–1865) between the Union and the Confederacy. The Union victory preserved the nation and abolished slavery, but the struggle to define freedom and citizenship continued into the Reconstruction era (1865–1877), which attempted to rebuild the South, integrate formerly enslaved people as citizens with rights, and redefine federal–state relations. This period laid the foundations for modern American democracy, even though many of its reforms were later undermined.

Panini was an ancient Indian Sanskrit grammarian, traditionally dated to around the 5th century BCE. He is best known for his work Aṣṭādhyāyī, a highly systematic and scientific grammar of Sanskrit composed in nearly 4,000 sutras. His analysis of phonetics, morphology, and syntax is considered one of the earliest and most advanced works in linguistics. Panini’s grammatical framework influenced not only later Indian linguistic traditions but also modern linguistic theory worldwide.